How to Use Sociology to Counter Claims of Reverse Racism

A former student recently asked me how one can use sociology to counter claims of â€Å"reverse racism.† The term refers to the idea that whites experience racism due to programs or initiatives that are designed to benefit people of color. Some claim that organizations or spaces that are exclusive to say, black people or Asian Americans, constitute â€Å"reverse racism,† or that scholarships open only to racial minorities discriminate against whites. The big point of contention for those concerned with â€Å"reverse racism† is Affirmative Action, which refers to measures in applications processes for employment or college admission that take race and the experience of racism into account in the evaluation process. To counter claims of â€Å"reverse discrimination,† let’s first revisit what racism actually is. Per our own glossary definition, racism serves to limit access to rights, resources, and privileges on the basis of essentialist notions of race (stereotypes). Racism can take a variety of forms in achieving these ends. It can be representational, manifesting in how we imagine and represent racial categories, like in costume at â€Å"Ghetto† or â€Å"Cinco de Mayo† parties, or in what kinds of characters people of color play in film and television. Racism can be ideological, existing in our world views and ideas premised on white superiority and the presumed cultural or biological inferiority of others. There are other forms of racism too, but most important to this discussion of whether or not affirmative action constitutes â€Å"reverse racism† are the ways that racism operates institutionally and structurally. Institutional racism manifests in education in the tracking of students of color into remedial or special ed courses, while white students are more likely to be tracked into college prep courses. It also exists in the educational context in the rates at which students of color are punished and reprimanded, versus white students, for the same offenses. Institutional racism is also expressed in biases teachers reveal in doling out praise more so to white students than to students of color. Institutional racism in the educational context is a key force in reproducing long-term, historically rooted structural racism. This includes racial segregation into poor communities with underfunded and understaffed schools, and economic stratification, which overwhelmingly burdens people of color with poverty and limited access to wealth. Access to economic resources is a significant factor that shapes one’s educational experience, and the extent to which one is prepared for admission to college. Affirmative Action policies in higher education are designed to counteract the near 600-year history of systemic racism in this country. A cornerstone of this system is undeserved enrichment of whites based on historical theft of land and resources from Native Americans, theft of labor and denial of rights of Africans and African Americans under slavery and its Jim Crow aftermath, and denial of rights and resources to other racial minorities throughout history. The undeserved enrichment of whites fueled the undeserved impoverishment of people of color—a legacy that is painfully alive today in racialized income and wealth disparities. Affirmative Action seeks to redress some of the costs and burdens born by people of color under systemic racism. Where people have been excluded, it seeks to include them. At their core, Affirmative Action policies are based on inclusion, not exclusion. This fact becomes clear when one considers the history of legislation that laid the groundwork for Affirmative Action, a term first used by former President John F. Kennedy in 1961 in Executive Order 10925, which referenced the need to end discrimination based on race, and was followed three years later by the Civil Rights Act. When we recognize that Affirmative Action is premised on inclusion, we see clearly that it is not consistent with racism, which uses racial stereotypes to limit access to rights, resources, and privileges. Affirmative Action is the opposite of racism; it is anti-racism. It is not â€Å"reverse† racism. Now, some might claim that Affirmative Action limits access to rights, resources, and privileges for whites who are thought to be displaced by people of color who are granted admission instead of them. But the fact is, that claim simply doesn’t stand up to scrutiny when one examines historical and contemporary rates of college admission by race. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, between 1980 and 2009, the number of African American students enrolled in college annually more than doubled, from about 1.1 million to just under 2.9 million. During that same period, Hispanic and Latino enjoyed a huge jump in enrollment, multiplying by more than five, from 443,000 to 2.4 million. The rate of increase for white students was much lower, at just 51 percent, from 9.9 million to about 15 million. What these jumps in enrollment for African Americans and Hispanic and Latinos show is the intended outcome of Affirmative Action policies: increased inclusion. Importantly, the inclusion of these racial groups did not harm white enrollment. In fact, data released by the Chronicle of Higher Education in 2012 show that white students are still slightly over-represented in terms of their presence in that year’s freshmen class at 4-year schools, while black and Latino students are still underrepresented.* Further, if we look beyond the Bachelor’s degree to advanced degrees, we see percentages of white degree earners rise as does level of degree, culminating in a stark underrepresentation of black and Latino recipients of degrees at the level of Doctor. Other research has shown clearly that university professors demonstrate a strong bias toward white male students who express interest in their graduate programs, much to the expense of women and students of color. Looking at the big picture of longitudinal data, it is clear that while Affirmative Action policies have successfully opened access to higher education across racial lines, they have not limited the ability of whites to access this resource. Rulings from the mid-1990s that have outlawed Affirmation Action at public educational institutions lead to a fast and sharp drop in enrollment rates of black and Latino students at those institutions, quite notably in the University of California system. Now, let’s consider the bigger picture beyond education. For â€Å"reverse racism,† or racism against whites, to exist in the U.S., we would first have to reach racial equality in systemic and structural ways. We would have to pay reparations to make up for centuries upon centuries of unjust impoverishment. We would have to equalize wealth distribution and achieve equal political representation. We would have to see equal representation across all job sectors and educational institutions. We would have to abolish racist policing, judicial, and incarceration systems. And, we would have to eradicate ideological, interactional, and representational racism. Then, and only then, might people of color be in a position to limit access to resources, rights, and privileges on the basis of whiteness. Which is to say, â€Å"reverse racism† does not exist in the United States.   *I base these statements on 2012 U.S. Census population data, and compare the category â€Å"White alone, not Hispanic or Latino† to the White/Caucasian category used by the Chronicle of Higher Education. I collapsed the Chronicle’s data for Mexican-American/Chicano, Puerto Rican, and Other Latino into a total percentage, which I compared to the Census category â€Å"Hispanic or Latino.†

Pros And Cons Of Standardized Testing - 1400 Words

Even though there are many downsides to standardized testing there are still viable reasons why they are still being used today. One of the main reasons includes the easy and quick access of testing students. Standardized testing allows schools to quickly access a large amount of students at one time. This is also one of the cheapest ways to tests such a large crowd due to machinery that grades which results in low tests costs for students. These tests also help by setting a national curriculum for all high school teachers to teach in schools. â€Å"It provides guidelines for curriculum. Standardized tests give teachers a structure of what needs to be taught. This helps keep classroom material consistent across the country† (â€Å"Pros and Cons of†¦show more content†¦For instance, â€Å"A June 2006 Public Agenda survey of 1,342 public school students in grades 6-12 found that 71% of students think the number of tests they have to take is â€Å"about right† a nd 79% believe test questions are fair† (Education Insights). This shows that many students believe in the idea of these tests. These tests also create a harder way for teachers to be biased against students due to the machinery grading the tests. These tests seem like the easiest and fairest way to go when including the idea that all students would be tested over the same curriculum and the same questions along with the same time allowed and creating a harder way for students to cheat. For example, It prevents subjective grading. This helps eliminate marking bias and ensures rationale behind each test question† (â€Å"Pros Cons of Standardized Tests†). This is also one of the easiest ways to test such a large crowd. The ACT and SAT are the fastest, easiest and most cost efficient forms of standardized test that examine students on their current level of education on behalf of their acceptance into those colleges. These test are able to test students mental stren gth and endurance. These tests are still being proven to this day why it is still the most used testing form word wide. Although these positives points still keep standardized tests alive, the negative may overcomeShow MoreRelatedPros And Cons Of Standardized Testing801 Words   |  4 Pagescontroversial topic Since Middle School, I was not opposed to standardized testing. I thought of it as a way of testing us of what we have learned. Although, after reading some articles about standardized testing I am re-thinking the pros and cons. From personal experience, I thought of it as a challenge to pass them. But now that reminisce about it, I noticed some of the cons of standardized testing. I remember having a week or two dedicated for testing, and in case of students failing they had to take timeRead MoreThe Pros and Cons of Standardized Testing1050 Words   |  5 Pageseducational world is standardized tests. All fifty states have their own standards following the common core curriculum. There are many positives and negatives that go with the standardized tests. A standardized test is any type of â€Å"examination thats administered and scored in a predetermined, standard manner† (Popham, 1999). These standardized tests are either aptitude tests or achievement tests. Schools use ach ievement tests to compare students. There are pros to standardized examinations as toolsRead MorePros And Cons Of Standardized Testing1025 Words   |  5 PagesWhat are standardized tests? Standardized tests are exams that are administered, scored, and interpreted in the same way for all students. Now there are many pros and cons of standardized testing however, I believe that public and private schools should just abolish standardized testing all together. These tests determine a student’s academic performance and each student is given the same test with the same questions and answers. These tests are designed to measure the students learning capabilitiesRead MorePros and Cons of Standardized Testing583 Words   |  2 PagesStandardized testing has its pros and cons I do not believe in it but I will give you proof for and against the testing. We will cover some the history and where the testing came from and why we do it. I will talk a little bit of how I feel about testing and how much we should focus on ho w the students do on the test. I have interviewed a few teachers that I had when I went to school and some personal friends that are teachers now and how it effects how they teach. Most historians trace the beginningRead MoreThe Pros and Cons of Standardized Testing Essay674 Words   |  3 PagesStandardized testing is a down fall to many students but also an opportunity for many others. Standardized testing has its pros and its cons. It can be the make it or break it factor into getting into colleges you are hoping to attend or the scholarships you want to earn. Some people may have their opinions about the test, whether they hate it or not but the fact is that it’s here to stay. What exactly is standardized testing you may ask, it is a test which measures the knowledge among differentRead MoreThe Pros And Cons Of Standardized Testing1491 Words   |  6 PagesStandardized testing was introduced by French psychologist Alfred Binet in 1905. The test originated because Binet was commissioned by the French government to create a tool to identify which students needed remedial studies. Over time, the standardized tests evolved into multiple different tests in multiple subjects for varying age groups of students. The tests were initially seen as a way to test a large sum of people with the same general questions to see an individual’s knowledge. Some peopleRead MoreThe Pros And Cons Of Standardized Testing1511 Words   |  7 PagesOver the years the educational system has faced various controversial issues, but the most recent one making a negative impact on students, is standardized testing. Standardized testing is a type of testing used to evaluate stud ents academic abilities . It is a way to measure if standards are being met but does not provide a variation in the type of administration based on the students needs (Sacks, 2000). In other words, all children are provided these test to track their learning progress basedRead MoreThe Pros And Cons Of Standardized Testing1100 Words   |  5 Pagesscience, history, and science. Then, every year, students typically take one big standardized test, or even more. These tests are claimed to give educators an objective that’s unbiased. Standardized testing supposedly helps identify the natural tendency of individual students, identifying skill development and progress. However, are these things what standardized testing really do for students? Standardized testing only measures a small portion of what makes education substantial. This means thatRead MorePros And Cons Of Standardized Testing1201 Words   |  5 Pages Standardized testing is all based on your performance as a student on a specific day, time and place. What it doesn’t show is how you perform on a day to day basis. These types of test can be given in any type of form that requires test takers to answer the same questions, and is then scored in a â€Å"standard† or consistent manner. Students should not have to take standardized test because of many reasons. As a human I have days where I’m tired and didn’t get enough sleep the night before or it isRead MoreThe Pros And Cons Of Standardized Testing704 Words   |  3 Pagesschool. But the majority can attest to saying that they all hate standardized testing and the week that it brings. Every student knows this week all too well. From having one to two tests a day and then shortly after not being able to function properly on the rest of the school day. Many students will say that they all hate the idea of standardized testing and wish it to be gone. The real question stands though: is standardized testing increasing the performance of students? The main argument against

As I Lay Dying by William Faulkner Essay Example For Students

As I Lay Dying by William Faulkner Essay In As I Lay Dying, by William Faulkner, all of the Bundren family members are quite eccentric and would be difficult to travel with; but the worst member would have to be Addie because she smells and slows us down. While traveling with the Bundrens, one of the reasons I most despise Addie the fact that her grotesque smell makes me sick and the trip very unpleasant. The first smell I have to endure and hate the most is the smell of her rotting body alone. After her body has been decomposing for 9 days, people can smell her miles away! Imagine the smell I have to experience just a few feet away from her. The next smell is the disgusting fish water that her body is saturated in. That smell just adds to the horrid stench to create a smorgasbord of disgusting odors. The rotting body and dirty river water would be enough, but the she has to go and burn herself too! That fool Darl lit her on fire; and Jewel, the idiot he is, went and saved her. Now I have to travel with the stench of a burnt carcass. The combination of all three smells is so unbearable that I can not stand Addie one second longer. Furthermore, instead of enjoying my well-earned vacation to Jefferson, not only do I have to worry about the safety of Addie? body, but she is also a nuisance to every family in one way or another. If it were not for Addie, we would get to Jefferson much faster and enjoy our vacation. Without her, there would have been no trouble crossing the river. She is an inconvenience to every single member of the family starting with Jewel whom goes through the trouble of saving her from the river and the fire. Next, Cash breaks his leg and has to have a concrete cast because of his attempt to get her body safely across the river. Anse is obviously frustrated with Addie for many reasons. He wants to get to Jefferson as soon as possible to get his teeth, and he also needs to get a new wife to do his work for him. In addition to Anse, Dewey Dell also wants to get to Jefferson as soon as possible to have her abortion. Finally, Darl pays the biggest price for his mother and is sent to an insane asylum because of his selfless act to try giving her a respectful burial. Every single member of the family makes sacrifices for Addie and is inconvenienced in some way by her existence. This is why Addie Bundren is the most difficult member of the family to travel with.